This course considers the process of neurotransmission, especially chemicals used in the brain and elsewhere to carry signals from nerve terminals to the structures they innervate. We focus on monoamine transmitters (acetylcholine; serotonin; dopamine and norepinephrine); we also examine amino acid and peptide transmitters and neuromodulators like adenosine. Macromolecules that mediate neurotransmitter synthesis, release, inactivation and receptor-mediated actions are discussed, as well as factors that regulate their activity and the second-messenger systems and ion fluxes that they control. The involvement of particular neurotransmitters in human diseases is considered.

Biology is designed for multi-semester biology courses for science majors. It is grounded on an evolutionary basis and includes exciting features that highlight careers in the biological sciences and everyday applications of the concepts at hand. To meet the needs of today’s instructors and students, some content has been strategically condensed while maintaining the overall scope and coverage of traditional texts for this course. Instructors can customize the book, adapting it to the approach that works best in their classroom. Biology also includes an innovative art program that incorporates critical thinking and clicker questions to help students understand—and apply—key concepts.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:Describe four types of signaling found in multicellular organismsCompare internal receptors with cell-surface receptorsRecognize the relationship between a ligand’s structure and its mechanism of action

By the end of this section, you will be able to:Distinguish between the two major cell types of the nervous system, neurons and gliaIdentify the basic parts of a neuron

This resource is a video abstract of a research paper created by Research Square on behalf of its authors. It provides a synopsis that's easy to understand, and can be used to introduce the topics it covers to students, researchers, and the general public. The video's transcript is also provided in full, with a portion provided below for preview:

"Overconsumption of food is one factor linked to obesity. In certain individuals, the pleasure experienced from food rewards may override signals indicating “I’m full.” One possible influencer in this process is the gut microbiome. The composition of the gut microbiota is known to be unbalanced in obesity. But how it contributes to further dysregulating eating behaviors via the food reward system is poorly understood. To assess the role of the gut microbiota in food intake regulation, researchers transferred gut-microbe-containing fecal material from obese donor mice into lean recipient mice. Experiments revealed that recipient mice developed excessive motivation for a food reward and that the gut microbes from obese donor mice altered the brain reward system of recipient mice. Motivation for food rewards was associated with changes in gut microbe-produced metabolites. with the metabolite 33HPP being identified as a modulator of neurotransmitter signalling..."

The rest of the transcript, along with a link to the research itself, is available on the resource itself.

Kleine Moleküle stellen die wesentlichen Bestandteile im Körper bereit, die für die Nährstoffversorgung sowie für die körperliche Entwicklung und Wachstum notwendig sind. Diese Mini Lecture geht den Entdeckungen wie der chemischen Struktur von kleinen Molekülen nach. Dabei stehen insbesondere Vitamine, Hormone und Neurotransmitter im Fokus des Beitrages.

This resource is a video abstract of a research paper created by Research Square on behalf of its authors. It provides a synopsis that's easy to understand, and can be used to introduce the topics it covers to students, researchers, and the general public. The video's transcript is also provided in full, with a portion provided below for preview:

"Chronic migraine is defined as 15 or more headache-days per month for more than 3 months within the previous 12 months, with at least 8 migraine-days per month. Chronic migraine usually evolves from episodic migraine, with peripheral and central sensitization in the trigeminovascular system contributing to the pathophysiology. The first-line treatment of chronic migraine is pharmacological. Acute medications treat migraine symptoms, and preventative therapies help reduce the frequency, severity, and duration of migraine attacks. Unfortunately, several of these medications show inadequate efficacy, tolerability, and adherence to treatment. This has led to the development of novel therapies such as onabotulinumtoxinA, a preventative option formulated from botulinum toxin type A. In the peripheral neuron, onabotulinumtoxinA targets SNAP-25, an essential protein of the SNARE complex. This complex mediates the release of neurotransmitters associated with the genesis of pain from vesicles in neurons..."

The rest of the transcript, along with a link to the research itself, is available on the resource itself.

This resource is a video abstract of a research paper created by Research Square on behalf of its authors. It provides a synopsis that's easy to understand, and can be used to introduce the topics it covers to students, researchers, and the general public. The video's transcript is also provided in full, with a portion provided below for preview:

"Insufficient blood supply to the brain and a resulting oxygen shortage are collectively referred to as hypoxic ischemia (HI). During HI, accumulation of the neurotransmitter glutamate (Glu) in synapses can lead to neuron damage. Another neurotransmitter, NAAG, can help protect brain cells during HI by binding to the Glu receptor mGluR3 and preventing excess Glu signaling, but exactly how NAAG helps maintain synaptic networks isn’t clear. To learn more, researchers recently examined NAAG/Glu signaling and synaptic plasticity in the brains of newborn pigs subjected to HI via carotid artery clamping. The levels of NAAG and mGluR3 increased during HI, especially after 12–24 h, and then decreased, consistent with an initial anti-Glu defense mechanism. Next, the researchers inhibited the NAAG-degrading enzyme in piglets to increase brain NAAG levels..."

The rest of the transcript, along with a link to the research itself, is available on the resource itself.

Psychology is designed to meet scope and sequence requirements for the single-semester introduction to psychology course. The book offers a comprehensive treatment of core concepts, grounded in both classic studies and current and emerging research. The text also includes coverage of the DSM-5 in examinations of psychological disorders. Psychology incorporates discussions that reflect the diversity within the discipline, as well as the diversity of cultures and communities across the globe.Senior Contributing AuthorsRose M. Spielman, Formerly of Quinnipiac UniversityContributing AuthorsKathryn Dumper, Bainbridge State CollegeWilliam Jenkins, Mercer UniversityArlene Lacombe, Saint Joseph's UniversityMarilyn Lovett, Livingstone CollegeMarion Perlmutter, University of Michigan

By the end of this section, you will be able to:Identify the basic parts of a neuronDescribe how neurons communicate with each otherExplain how drugs act as agonists or antagonists for a given neurotransmitter system

This resource is a video abstract of a research paper created by Research Square on behalf of its authors. It provides a synopsis that's easy to understand, and can be used to introduce the topics it covers to students, researchers, and the general public. The video's transcript is also provided in full, with a portion provided below for preview:

"G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are key proteins that help transmit extracellular signals into cells. Arrestin molecules help regulate GPCR signaling by recognizing and binding to GPCR residues that have been phosphorylated specifically by the kinase GRK. Two models, the barcode model and the flute model, have been proposed to explain this process. In the barcode model, different protein kinases produce different phosphorylation “barcodes” on GPCRs and arrestins “read” the barcodes produced by GRK to produce certain signaling outcomes. In the flute model, different phosphorylation patterns form different sequences of “notes”. These notes can then be “played” in various ways by the different structural features of arrestins, enabling multiple “songs” (outcomes) to be produced from one set of notes..."

The rest of the transcript, along with a link to the research itself, is available on the resource itself.

This resource is a video abstract of a research paper created by Research Square on behalf of its authors. It provides a synopsis that's easy to understand, and can be used to introduce the topics it covers to students, researchers, and the general public. The video's transcript is also provided in full, with a portion provided below for preview:

"People with depression are more likely to have chronic pain, and people with chronic pain are more likely to be depressed. Those with depression also often report feeling more intense pain, which can lead to a vicious cycle that’s hard to break. Scientists, unfortunately, don’t have a good understanding of why this happens. But in a new Anesthesiology paper, researchers from China detail a brain circuit in mice that begins to explain this phenomenon -- and suggests potential treatments. The team used optogenetics and chemogenetics along with tracing methods to map out neuronal circuits when mice became depressed. In one set of key experiments, mice were restrained in a small tube for 6 hours a day. After 3 weeks of chronic restraint stress, mice began to look depressed. They ate less, showed decreased mobility during a swimming test, and displayed greater sensitivity to noxious stimuli..."

The rest of the transcript, along with a link to the research itself, is available on the resource itself.

This resource is a video abstract of a research paper created by Research Square on behalf of its authors. It provides a synopsis that's easy to understand, and can be used to introduce the topics it covers to students, researchers, and the general public. The video's transcript is also provided in full, with a portion provided below for preview:

"Chronic brain hypoperfusion (CBH) is caused by decreased blood flow to the brain and is considered a key predictor of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia. CBH can indirectly lead to cognitive decline by altering the expression of proteins at synapses, where neurons communicate through neurotransmitters released from presynaptic vesicles and recognized by postsynaptic receptors. Researchers recently linked this decline to the microRNA miRNA-153. FM 1-43 experiments showed that overexpression of miRNA-153 impairs presynaptic vesicle release, and in a CBH rat model, overexpression of miRNA-153 decreased the expression of multiple proteins involved in vesicle release. Conversely, knockdown of miRNA-153 rescued these synaptic defects and attenuated cognitive decline in the rat model..."

The rest of the transcript, along with a link to the research itself, is available on the resource itself.